Tuesday, January 28, 2020

Debate of Nature vs Nurture

Debate of Nature vs Nurture The historical debate regarding nature and nurture has been going on for years and is still unresolved. Many theorists believe what we have inherited and our genes, makes us the way we are and affects how we develop. Other theorists believe it is the way we are brought up and our experiences, that make us the way we are and how we develop. [1] Nature is the coding of genes in each cell in us humans determine the different traits that we have, more dominantly on the physical attributes like eye color, hair color, ear size, height, and other traits. However, it is still not known whether the more abstract attributes like personality, intelligence, sexual orientation, likes and dislikes are gene-coded in our DNA, too. [2] The nurture theory holds that genetic influence over abstract traits may exist; however, the environmental factors are the real origins of our behavior. This includes the use of conditioning in order to induce a new behavior to a child, or alter an unlikely behavior being shown by the child. According to John Watson, one of the strongest psychologists who propose environmental learning as a dominating side in the nature vs nurture debate, once said that he can be able to train a baby randomly chosen in a group of 12 infants, to become any type of specialist Watson wants. He stated that he could train him to be such regardless of the childs potentialities, talents and race. [2] In the case of personality traits, non-shared environmental effects are often found to outweigh shared environmental effects. That is, environmental effects that are typically thought to be life-shaping (such as family life) may have less of an impact than non-shared effects, which are harder to identify. One possible source of nonshared effects is the environment of prenatal development. Random variations in the genetic program of development may be a substantial source of nonshared environment. These results suggest that nurture may not be the predominant factor in environment. Environment and our situations, do in fact impact our lives, but not the way in which we would typically react to these environmental factors. We are preset with personality traits that are the basis for how we would react to situations. An example would be how extraverted prisoners become less happy than introverted prisoners and would react to their incarceration more negatively due to their preset extrave rted personality [3] Throughout the stages of our life nature and nurture play a large part and help dictate where we will end up in the future for example if you were brought up in a place with a really bad drug problems its likely that you will also develop a drug addiction, also if you were brought up in an area with a lot of gang problems its likely that you will become involved in gang related issues. Neglect and abuse can also affect your development as it could leave you with psychological issues that if left unresolved could cause problems in your adult life, for example if at a young age you see your father beating your mother you might begin to think that this is what is suppose to happen unless told otherwise, leading to you in the future having psychological problems. At childhood the brain is like a sponge and will absorbs any information it is told by the senses. Childrens temperament such as their characteristics and ways of responding to emotional events, novel stimuli, and their own impulses seem to be in part affected by their individual genetic makeup. Similarly, being slow or quick to learn from instruction and everyday experiences has some genetic basis. Inherited characteristics and tendencies are not always evident at birth. Many physical features emerge gradually through the process of maturation, the genetically guided changes that occur over the course of development. Environmental support, such as food, reasonably safe and toxin-free surroundings, and responsive care from others, is necessary for maturation to take place; nature never works alone.[4] Birth and Infancy How a mother handles her pregnancy is critical to a babys development, if a pregnant mother drinks large quantities of alcohol   it can affect her unborn baby extremely, children born with foetal alcohol syndrome tend to be born smaller, tend to have smaller heads and may have heart problems and learning difficulties. Also it is important that during the pregnancy the mother stays healthy as possible as if the mother develops any infections such as rubella it can cause impaired hearing and eyesight or heart damage, things like a mothers diet could also affect their unborn child as you are affected by what your mother eats for example if a mothers diet is high in fat and sugar the child will be have a risk of heart disease and malnutrition, if a mother eats a low amount of healthy food during their pregnancy it can lead to poor health for the child. During infancy Relationships are particularly important as infants learn primarily through their relationship with others. Eye contact, smiles and imitation set the stage for more sustained communication and meaningful exchanges and engagement with parents and other caregivers, and a growing world of relationships. [5]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bibliography http://www.studymode.com/essays/M1-Discuss-The-Nature-Nurture-Debate-1503784.html https://explorable.com/nature-vs-nurture-debate https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture#Personality_traits http://www.education.com/reference/article/nature-nurture/ http://www.beststart.org/OnTrack_English/2-factors.html

Monday, January 20, 2020

Essay --

â€Å"The founding fathers made an appropriate choice when they selected the Bald Eagle as the emblem of the nation. The fierce beauty and proud independence of this great bird aptly symbolizes the strength and freedom of America† –John F. Kennedy (Home). Bald Eagles have a unique way of living that makes them a strong symbol of the United States. First, the Eagle has certain traits about it that makes it such a unique and majestic bird. The bird’s Latin name is the Haliaeetus Leucocephalus which translates to â€Å"Sea Eagle with a white head† (Bald). As far as the bird goes, it has a life span of about 30 years living at the top of the food chain. An Eagle has a few weapons for hunting that make them a dangerous predator. Those weapons include the beak and talons which are both made from the substance human fingernails are made of; Keratin. The beak has a hook at the tip which is used for tearing, which creates a â€Å"scissor effect†. The talons are a powerful weapon, yet they are delicate enough to groom and feed their young. Talons are also used to kill the Eagle’s prey by penetrating its fle...

Saturday, January 11, 2020

Ufone Organizational Development

Introduction of Organisation PTML is a subsidiary of PTCL (Pakistan Telecom Company Limited), the largest operator in Pakistan. PTML was established to operate cellular telephony. The company commenced its operations, under the brand name of Ufone from Islamabad on January 29 2001. Since Etisalat took over PTCL in 2006,  during the year as a  consequence of PTCL’s privatization, 26% of its shares were acquired by Emirates Telecommunication Corporation (Etisalat). Being part of  PTCL, the management of Ufone has also been handed over  to Etisalat.In September 2006, Ufone selected Huawei to deploy the nationwide GSM network at a contract value of above USD550  million. Ufone adopted Huawei's new-generation GSM solution, including All-IP core network and BTS, to  construct a GSM network covering 1,500 cities and towns of Pakistan. Ufone has a subscriber base of 20. 23 million as of September 2010. During2006 Ufone successfully completed the network expansion of Phase 4  in existing as well as in new cities and towns which amounted to more than US Dollar 170 million. As a  result the asset  base of the Company has  increased from Rs. 0 billion to Rs. 27  billion. Ufone adopted the policy of simplified tariffs with no  hidden charges, which resulted in positive impacts on total subscriber base, Ufone currently caters for international roaming to more than 195 live operators across 119  countries and introduced International roaming facility for Prepaid subscribers in Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, United  Arab Emirates, Singapore,  Portugal and Kuwait with lowest rates, featuring no security deposit and activation charges. GPRS roaming facility is available with more than 75 Live Operators across 59 countries.The Company  has also  been awarded a new License for providing cellular services in Azad Jammu ; Kashmir and the  Northern Areas. Organization structure Organizational structure defines how job tasks are formally desig ned, grouped and coordinated. Ufone is a decentralized structured organization at branch level but overall the whole setup is centralized. The organizational structure is horizontal or lean. In this way flow of communication becomes very easy and simple. It is divided into different departments and each department has a head which take decisions. All departments are interlinked.The concept of departmentalization is effectively practiced at ufone. All departments contribute to the overall goal of the organization. Ufone has 7 departments. 1. Finance 2. Marketing 3. Information technology department 4. Customer operations department 5. Engineering dept 6. Sales dept 7. Human resource dept. Formal Structure or Informal Structure? When a company wants to compete in innovation, it needs to maximize flexibility. Flexibility is maximized by aggregating work into larger, holistic pieces that are executed by teams of higher wages, high skilled workers.Giving the units their own support syste ms and decision-making authority to take advantage of local opportunities in regional or specialized product markets also enhances flexibility. Keeping in view of all these factors the structure of Ufone is designed i. e. the overall Structure of the Ufone is Divisional (More flexible and innovative). Mainly Ufone has four regions and within those regions the structure is functional . The decision making authority is centralized at the top but within the regions it is decentralized i. e. egional heads have to inform top management before making any decisions. This is what Ufone looks from the organizational hierarchy point of view. There are 7 different departments each headed by a Project Director. They report directly to the CEO. There are four BU (Business Unit) each Project Director is responsible for these eight divisions. BUs are divided geographically into three divisions: * BU North (Peshawar to Jehlum, including Islamabad) * BU Central-1 (Gujranwala till Sialkot) * BU Centr al-2 (Multan till Rahim Yar Khan) * BUM South (Sindh and Balochistan)Nature of Organization Cultural Dimensions Organizational culture refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from the other organization. Ufone is following clan culture which competitors are lacking in that term. Oriented organization looks like a very personal place, employee relations are shaped around mentoring and nurturing, workplace looks like an extended form of family, a general encouragement of participation is the building block of day to day routines of organization, and work is designed around flexibility and self sufficiency.Human development with high trust and openness is the basic agenda of clan oriented organizations. Ufone has hierarchy culture dominance, the only organization having a substantially different cultural orientation, to be singled out, is U-Fone, which is a public sector organization. People find their jobs more secure in public sector, moreover the workload and timings of job are much relaxed mostly in public sector organizations. These might be some of the reasons why U-Fone is perceived to be a Clan oriented organization by its employees.The disparity in the current and preferred culture is prevalent in individual organizations and industry as well. Clan is the preferred culture by most of the organizations, leading towards an industry preference as well. Ufone culture is very innovative due to a dynamic organization with a powerful culture that allows people to make the  most of their skills, personality and career in very less time. Ufone empower their employees to compete with others in term of innovation and bringing new ideas. People in ufone utilize their team effort optimally and their marketing strategies are the concrete evidence for that.Communication Communication can flow vertically or laterally. The vertical dimensions can be further divided into downward and upward communication. 1. Internal Comm unication in Ufone: Internal Communication of Ufone is given below, Downward and upward communication is called vertical communication within organization: Upward communication in Ufone: Upward communication is the flow of information from subordinates to superiors, or from employees to management. In Ufone communication is an important source that is considered for success.Upward Communication in Ufone is a mean for staff to: * Exchange information to management, Ufone having organic structure employees does not feel hesitation to exchange information. * Offer ideas in which they already have edge like their advertising strategies and package offering are very effective. * Express enthusiasm as the matter of fact they have been given empowerment so they come up with interesting ideas. * Achieve job satisfaction that is related with the satisfaction employees achieve from the job. * Provide feedback on the internal system.Downward Communication Information flowing from the top of th e organizational management hierarchy and telling people in the organization what is important (mission) and what is valued (policies). Employees working in Ufone are instructed clearly on the most important issues and policies. This has encouraged two way discussions to discuss employee’s problem and customer relationship issues. Normally Ufone announces important decisions and it falls in this category of communication where employee needs to get all clear information on what to do in the organization.Upper level management motivates employees and gets feedback and if any policy or issue is not being resolved is discussed to remove. Horizontal/Lateral Communication in Ufone: Ufone has always been serious for having efficient teams working for different objectives like promotion and other important issues. Communication among employees at the same level is crucial for the accomplishment of work. Ufone has always encouraged team effort and innovation. Ufone has one more thing to get to its credit is building goodwill by boosting efficiency and improving teamwork. Employees always cooperate and perform well. . External Communication in Ufone Communication with people outside the company is called â€Å"external communication†. Supervisors communicate with sources outside the organization, such as vendors and customers. It leads to better; * Sales volume * Public credibility * Operational efficiency * Company profits Ufone believes in Integrated Marketing Communication which is a carefully blended mix of  promotion tools. Ufone employ different marketing activities and channels to communicate and deliver value to customer. These activities are coordinated to provide maximum communication output.These communication channels includes:-Advertising, sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing ; personal selling. Ufone strategize to carry out promotion in  order to increase its market share. Strategies: Ufone strategize to widen its coverage to all places in Pakistan in order to meet the requirements of its increasing customer base. Now Ufone is heading from cities to remote northern areas in expanding its network and also has developed some sites there. Ufone has intensive promotion in cities, but it is also considering improving its promotion in rural areas as well.Customer Relationship Management Ufone focuses on the 10 commandments rule it has posted on its office wall. Ufone believes in â€Å"SERVICE FIRST† rule and trains to its employees (personnel) to follow this rule. It treats its customers as a king because one dissatisfied customer dissatisfies the other customers as well. Ufone  personnel  are  taught  to  deal  with  the  customers  with  the  courteous  attitude. Also promotion policies are developed from time to time to retain the customers lost. This is done by giving discounts on calls rates, giving free SMS bundles, free minutes etc. to the customers who don’t us e their SIMs for 2 to 3 months. Call centre records the calls done by customers to maintain quality assurance. Greeting messages are sent to customers on religious events. Also, birthday messages or cards are sent to the loyal customers. Door step services are provided to the customers. These services give a competitive edge to Ufone. Sales Promotion: Ufone strategize to take aid of sales promotion whenever it sees a minor drop in its usage by its customers. They mostly go for pull strategy in promotion i. e. hey spend a lot on advertising and consumer promotion to induce final customers to avail their services. Ufone applies sales promotion schemes continually in order to keep its customers loyal and happy. Sales promotions are short term incentives to encourage the purchase or sale of a product or services. Ufone utilizes sales promotion activities to boost its sales. It follows all four of  the promotion budgeting methods viz affordable method, percentage of sales method, compe titive parity method and objective ; task method. Ufone uses following sales promotion tools.Contests, Games, Premium tickets and promotional packages. Which type of Network Ufone follows? Type of network which Ufone is following is all channel network, where employees coordinate with each other but still there is central authority and team work is more encouraged. It is rather blend of wheel and all channel network, self managed teams are made and all objectives being performed are checked by central authority. Interpersonal Relationships Individual in Ufone share common goals and objectives. They have more or less similar interests and think on the same lines.Since they come from the similar background and so they develop good relationship. It has always been better for Ufone. Employees in Ufone respect each other point of view and maintain humble climate throughout. There is most important factor associated with interpersonal relationship is having transparency which plays a vita l role and since all relation must not be biased and so they also focus on honest relationship. Since they have teams that perform most of the time on different issues and they do not indulge in criticism, backbiting and do not interfere each other. This creates a pleasant environment.Baseless rumors are always discouraged and since they have been motivated all the time from upper management and their productivity increases and they try to perform even better and come up with some innovative ideas and they are also satisfied employees. According to a survey conducted, most of the employees do not want to leave this organization for the only reason that they have become satisfied and all the policies and procedures are quite good and criticism has been very low. The reason being the Ufone success could also be the interpersonal relationship which encourages efficiency.Ethics The word â€Å"ethics† is often in the news these days. Ethics is a philosophical term derived from the Greek word â€Å"ethos† meaning character or custom. This definition is germane to effective leadership in organizations in that it connotes an organization code conveying moral integrity and consistent values in service to the public. Ufone always consider ethics while making their policies and recruitment policies. Even marketing strategies are made in the way that shows ethical behavior as compared to competitors so they are strictly following it.Customer relationship management is another important thing which should be taken seriously for ethics. Your customer is your only way for making your organization survives in the market. So ethics are important for Ufone to maintain good relationship with customers and in this regard customer service has been given clear instruction on how to deal customers and they have even promoted ten codes for customers in different franchise of Ufone and also customer complaint cell has been formed if someone behaves wrong then it should b e taken in to consideration. How Ufone encourages ethical behavior?Also quality service department checks the ongoing calls of customer support and also feedback is checked so these are all the policies in regard for customer relationship and to maintain ethics so customer should feel respected. Recruitment policy of is designed in way that makes sure that everyone should apply for different position in organization and no gender discrimination is made. Even training is given to new employees rather leaving them alone in initial stages. They even hire diverse people and they think it is for the best interest of the company to follow such steps.Ufone also holds different issues for showing their love for Pakistan. The events like cultural diversity and workshops are good steps taken by Ufone. Employees are given motivation good extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to make them efficient. Performance Appraisal Objective of the Performance Management: The basic objective for performance UFO NE employees circles around the following: * To look at Performance system as a means to an end * Setting an individual’s goal * Aligning goals across the company * Ensuring employees get coaching from managers Determining merit pay * Identifying training and development needs * Providing data for promotion decision * Input from multiple source on worker performance The performance appraisal process: The Performance appraisal system used by UFONE for reviewing the performance status of its employee starts with identifying specific appraisal goals set by each Group for each cadre. After this a detail job analysis is done with looking in account the job expectation and then matching the actual performance with the desired performance.Afterward the performance is appraised according to the set standards and this appraisal is not done by the supervisor alone, their major focus is on taking into the account the employee’s perspective as well. Therefore whenever the appraisa l is done employee is fully participative in the process. Performance Appraisal Method Use by UFONE UFONE is using 180-Degree Performance Appraisal Method. Within this method, managers, peers, customers or colleagues are asked to complete questionnaire on the employee being assessed. In UFONE, performance of an employee is appraises twice a year. Once in June while other in December.In the questionnaire there are five sections and in each section there are five questions related to the performance of employee. There are total 100 points from which an employee gets. Performance appraisal: 360 ° Behavior 20% Results 80% Total 100% Total 500 Marks| Best ;400| Good ;300| Average ;250| Compensation Responsibilities of Ufone HR Department Compensation Administration (designing and installing job evaluation program, pay structure, analyzing jobs and their dollar-worth, maintaining suitable records, wage and salary surveys of the labor market). * Health and Safety (health programs, safety programs, Medical facility). Employee relations (wages, rates of pay, hours of work, conditions of employment, negotiation, contract interpretation and administration, grievance handling, allocation of overtime). * Benefits and Services (insurance programs, Transportation facility, sick leave pay plans, loan funds, LFA salary, Yearly bonus programs along with special bonuses for achieving high targets). Employees Reaction to the system As mentioned above that Ufone follow the job based and competitive structure, so this thing is in the nature of human that to react against any system because by implementing structure everybody in the organization thinks that e or she is doing much and organization is not treating them well with the comparison of others. But at Ufone as we observed mostly of the permanent employees are quite satisfied with this system as compared to the contractual employees. Their reaction towards the system is cooperative because of their appraisal system; the Ufo ne performance appraisal system is very effective after every six months everybody knows that what their score is.Ufone is a performance oriented organization so they compensate their employees on the basis of their performance so everybody know that if they show the results then the organization will compensate them good if not then they will never expect, This is a good approach for performance oriented organizations to implement the system like this because of this system everybody interests involves in it. And the Ufone also adopted the Competitive approach for compensation, because of this system every employee know what the other organizations are paying for the same job and what they are getting is fair or not.Some are not satisfied because they think that we are very senior and the organization should have to compensate us for our seniority not for our work done, (Loyalty factor involves). Satisfaction Reward System at Telecom Sector: There is a department which looks after the motivational factors of the employees. Rewards are performance based. But incentives are something related to job tenure and attached to every job title accordingly. They offer both type of rewards 1. Extrinsic 2. Intrinsic Intrinsic rewards are motivation, making them feel good and giving them empowerment and extrinsic rewards are salary, and different pay plans.Salary at telecom sector: According to the field of experience and job description every employee is compensated. Salaries are reviewed every year in January. Beside these fixed salaries there are various ways of rewarding one 1. If the employers complete their tasks within time and with quality they are recognized at the end of the year and they get bonuses accordingly, 2. If they show excellent performance in their departments, they can be promoted before seniors, 3. There are some commissions given to their employees on the basis of revenue they generate or the customers they make, they get more money. . Medical care ,( the employees get medical for their husband/wife/children and parents) 5. Life insurance, 6. Vacations, 7. Relocation, 8. Credit advance policy provident policy/ advance against provident fund and occupying of gratuity, 9. Recreation, 10. Club policy travel, 11. Education assistance policy, 12. Mobile phone, 13. Business mobile phone policy, 14. Official blackberry policy, Supervisory Support At Telecom Sector: Supervisory support is excellent in these companies. They guide their employees about their customers, about the company, about their rights and help them in every manner.Even if the performance of employees is not satisfactory, their supervisors ask them to look for the department of their choice. In the call centers of these companies the agents are constantly monitored by their supervisors, in case agents get stuck with a caller question then the supervisor come to them and help them with the answer because supervisors are senior persons, the supervisors appreciate thei r agents before the whole team if an agent takes more calls in their group. Empowerment Empowerment is the transfer of authorities from a senior to a junior or we can say delegating powers to another person is empowerment.Ufone is a very friendly employer and lets every personnel work efficiently. It lets every individual have the authority of taking decisions and performing tasks at his own level in the best possible way. This freedom creates a sense of  ownership in each employee and he becomes more concerned about his job. When the freedom level is created, employees feel happy to work with the organization and hence interact in a friendly way with the customers, thus enhancing the organization’s goodwill. Teams Work Teams:Rather than having people attend committee meetings where very little gets done, or relegate people to their workspace where work may or may not get done, Ufone assign people to work teams. People can share the workload with each other and competition between work teams will help to encourage productivity. This will allow you to share some of your resources rather than buy one for every desk (like a stapler, for example. Sure, it's a small expense but it adds up quickly). Because responsibility is spread among team members, work won't get missed because someone goes away on holidays.Work teams should be semi-permanent arrangements between people. Self managed team: The phrase self-directed work team — or self-managed  team — doesn’t mean that the team doesn’t need a leader or manager. It just means that the team is responsible and  accountablefor its decisions, as opposed to proposing action that will be approved or denied by someone outside the team. So Ufone always go for self managed team to resolve different issues and if some package plan has to be introduced in case competitor has introduced some cheap package.Virtual Teams: Ufone often go for Virtual teams that help to reduce expenses and in crease productivity. While meetings are essential, it's not always necessary for one person to fly to another city or drive to another office to attend the meeting. Virtual teams take care of that by using technology (like Webex or GoToMeeting) to connect teams. The first 3 types of teams are specific groups of people who get together to do the work they've been mandated to do. The 4th team is simply a mindset to improve productivity while reducing travel expenditures.So lot of team member without traveling to other city gets their work done in no time. Leadership Leadership style What makes a good leader or manager? For many it is someone who can inspire and get the most from their staff. There are many qualities that are needed to be a good leader or manager. Ufone upper level management has certain qualities to deal with employees. * Be able to think creatively to provide a vision for the company and solve problems * Be calm under pressure and make clear decisions * Possess excel lent two-way communication skills Have the desire to achieve great things * Be well informed and knowledgeable about matters relating to the business * Possess an air of authority Managers deal with their employees in different ways. Some are strict with their staff and like to be in complete control, whilst others are more relaxed and allow workers the freedom to run their own working lives (just like the different approaches you may see in teachers! ). Whatever approach is predominately used it will be vital to the success of the business. An organization is only as good as the person running it†. There are three main categories of leadership styles:  autocratic, paternalistic and democratic. Ufone follows democratic  style of management that will put trust in employees and encourage them to make decisions. They will delegate to them the authority to do this (empowerment) and listen to their advice. This requires good two-way communication and often involves democratic d iscussion groups, which can offer useful suggestions and ideas. Managers must be willing to encourage leadership skills in subordinates.

Friday, January 3, 2020

Introduction to Heat Transfer How Does Heat Transfer

What is heat? How does heat transfer take place? What are the effects on matter when heat transfers from one body to another? Heres what you need to know: Heat Transfer Definition Heat transfer is a process by which internal energy from one substance transfers to another substance. Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer and the changes that result from it. An understanding of heat transfer is crucial to analyzing a thermodynamic process, such as those that take place in heat engines and heat pumps. Forms of Heat Transfer Under the kinetic theory, the internal energy of a substance is generated from the motion of individual atoms or molecules. Heat energy is the form of energy which transfers this energy from one body or system to another. This heat transfer can take place in a number of ways: Conduction is when heat flows through a heated solid through a heat current moving through the material. You can observe conduction when heating a stove burner element or a bar of metal, which goes from red hot to white hot.Convection is when heated particles transfer heat to another substance, such as cooking something in boiling water.Radiation is when heat is transferred through electromagnetic waves, such as from the sun. Radiation can transfer heat through empty space, while the other two methods require some form of matter-on-matter contact for the transfer. In order for two substances to affect each other, they must be in thermal contact with each other. If you leave your oven open while turned on and stand several feet in front of it, you are in thermal contact with the oven and can feel the heat it transfers to you (by convection through the air). Normally, of course, you do not feel the heat from the oven when youre several feet away and that is because the oven has thermal insulation to keep the heat inside of it, thus preventing thermal contact with the outside of the oven. This is of course not perfect, so if you stand nearby you do feel some heat from the oven. Thermal equilibrium is when two items that are in thermal contact no longer transfer heat between them. Effects of Heat Transfer The basic effect of heat transfer is that the particles of one substance collide with the particles of another substance. The more energetic substance will typically lose internal energy (i.e. cool down) while the less energetic substance will gain internal energy (i.e. heat up). The most blatant effect of this in our day-to-day life is a phase transition, where a substance changes from one state of matter to another, such as ice melting from a solid to a liquid as it absorbs heat. The water contains more internal energy (i.e. the water molecules are moving around faster) than in the ice. In addition, many substances go through either thermal expansion or thermal contraction as they gain and lose internal energy. Water (and other liquids) often expands as it freezes, which anyone who has put a drink with a cap in the freezer for too long has discovered. Heat Capacity The heat capacity of an object helps define how that objects temperature responds to absorbing or transmitting heat. Heat capacity is defined as the change in heat divided by the change in temperature. Laws of Thermodynamics Heat transfer is guided by some basic principles which have become known as the laws of thermodynamics, which define how heat transfer relates to work done by a system and place some limitations on what it is possible for a system to achieve. Edited by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.